PERSONALITY

Theories of Personality

Contributed by: Angelika Martorillas,Kesia Mae Pedalino & Jean Heramil

Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best known psychology theories by a number of famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. In this section of the personality study guide, learn more about some of the major theories of personality and the psychologists who developed them.


We must also consider the influence and interaction of nature (biology, genetics etc.) and nurture (the environment, upbringing) with respect to personality development.


Trait theories of personality imply personality is biologically based, whereas state theories such as Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory emphasize the role of nurture and environmental influence. Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality assumes there is an interaction between nature (innate instincts) and nurture (parental influences).


Biological Theories

Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits.


One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality to biological processes. For example, Eysenck argued that introverts had high cortical arousal, leading them to avoid stimulation. On the other hand, Eysenck believed extroverts had low cortical arousal, causing them to seek out stimulating experiences.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.


Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theoryand Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.


Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, the ego, and the superego.


The id is responsible for all needs and urges, while the superego for ideals and moral. The ego moderates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality.


Erikson believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depended upon successfully overcoming these conflicts.

Humanist Theories

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality. Humanist theorists emphasized the concept of self-actualization, which is an innate need for personal growth that motivates behavior.Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers andAbraham Maslow.


Trait Theories

The trait theory approach is one of the largest areas within personality psychology. According to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is basically a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. Some of the best known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five factor theory of personality.


Eysenck (1947) found that their behavior could be represented by two dimensions: Introversion / Extroversion (E); Neuroticism / Stability (N). Eysenck called these second-order personality traits.

According to Eysenck, the two dimensions of neuroticism (stable vs. unstable) and introversion-extroversion combine to form a variety of personality characteristics.

Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive.

Introverts are reserved, plan their actions and control their emotions. They tend to be serious, reliable and pessimistic.

Neurotics / unstables tend to be anxious, worrying and moody. They are overly emotional and find it difficult to calm down once upset.

Stables are emotionally calm, unreactive and unworried.

Psychoticism – e.g. lacking in empathy, cruel, a loner, aggressive and troublesome.

Eysenck related the personality of an individual to the functioning of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Personality is dependent on the balance between excitation and inhibition process of the nervous system. Neurotic individuals have an ANS that responds quickly to stress.

Cattell (1965) disagreed with Eysenck’s view that personality can be understood by looking at only two or three dimensions of behavior.

Instead, he argued that that is was necessary to look at a much larger number of traits in order to get a complete picture of someone’s personality.

References:
Allport, Gordon W. Personality and Social Encounter: Selected Essays. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960.

Eysenck, Hans. The Structure of Human Personality. London Methuen, 1970.

Mischel, Walter. Introduction to Personality. 4th ed. New York Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1986.

EMOTION

contributed by : Angelika Martorillas , Kesia Mae Pedalino , Jean Heramil

It is hard to define EMOTION because it is not easy to tell when a person is in emotional state.
But you can define emotion through our body , mind , and face which plays an important roles.

EMOTIONS

DEFINITION of EMOTION :

EXPRESSING EMOTIONS :
a feeling , that can involve physiological arousal (e.g a fast heartbeat), conscious experience (e.g thinking about being in love with someone) and behavioral expression (e.g smile or grimace).

• FACIAL EXPRESSIONS 
• BODY LANGUAGE
• EXPLICIT ACTS and VERBAL REPORTS

THEORIES IN EMOTIONS

• JAMES-LANGE THEORY
• William James and Carl Lange.The James–Lange theory of emotion, for instance, asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal: in essence, that the self-perception of changes in the body produce emotional experiences. According to this theory, we laugh (a physiological response to a stimulus), and consequently we feel happy (an emotion); we cry, and consequently we feel sad.

One limitation of this theory is that it is not known exactly what causes the changes in the body, so it is unclear whether those changes should be considered part of the emotion itself. Critics of the James–Lange theory also doubt that there is sufficient variation in physiological arousal to lead to the wide variety of emotions that we experience.

Cannon-Bard Theory

• CANNON-BARD THEORY
The theory that physiological and emotional changes occur simultaneously in response to a stimulus (as opposed to the earlier James-Lange theory). Example: A woman is hiking in the forest when she stumbles upon a bear. All at once, she starts sweating, trembling, and feeling extremely afraid.

• SCHACTER-SINGER THEORY
• Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer

The Schachter–Singer theory, or two-factor theory of emotion, states that emotion is based on two factors:physiological arousal and cognitive label.People become aware that they are aroused , they search their environment to look for reaons for their arousal.

SCHACTER- SINGER

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  OPPONENT- PROCESS
  
  
  
  

  
  

  
  
  

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• OPPONENT- PROCESS THEORY
• Richard L. Solomon and his colleagues

Views emotions as pairs of opposites (for example, fear-relief, pleasure-pain). The opponent-process theory states that when one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed.
Each emotion or state that we experience triggers a force to experience the opposite emotion or state.

REFERENCES :

• http://www.psychwiki.com
• http://www.alleydog.com
• Book of general psychology by Agustin G. Huyong

MOTIVATION

18 Sep 2015 

Contributed by :Kesia Mae M. Pedalino

It seems obvious that people do things, such as go to work, in order to get stuff they want and to avoid stuff they don’t want.

Why exactly they want what they do and don’t want what they don’t is still something a mystery. It’s a black box and it hasn’t been fully penetrated.
Overall, the basic perspective on motivation looks something like this:

• In other words, you have certain needs or wants (these terms will be used interchangeably), and this causes you to do certain things (behavior), which satisfy those needs (satisfaction), and this can then change which needs/wants are primary (either intensifying certain ones, or allowing you to move on to other ones).

A variation on this model, particularly appropriate from an experimenter’s or manager’s point of view, would be to add a box labeled “reward” between “behavior” and “satisfaction”. So that subjects (or employees), who have certain needs do certain things (behavior), which then get them rewards set up by the experimenter or manager (such as raises or bonuses), which satisfy the needs, and so on.

DEFINITION :

What is MOTIVATION?

•  refers to the process of activating,maintaining,and directing behavior toward a particular goal
• is a psychological feature arouses an individual to act towards a desired goal and elicits,controls and sustain certain goal directed behaviors
•  arousal of interest that directs the learner towards a goal.
• The process that give behavior purpose and direction
• The general energizer for behavior

The Evolutionary Approach

Early in psychologist’s history,the evolutionary approach emphasized the role of instincts in motivation.
An INSTINCT is an innate,biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species.According to William Mcdougal(1908) argued that all behavior involves instinct.In particular,he said that we have instinct of acquisitiveness,curiosity,pugnacity,gregariousness,and self asssertion.At about the same time,Sigmund Freud(1917) argued that behavior is based on instinct.Freud believed that sex and aggression were especially powerful instincts.
According to evolutionary psychologists,the motivation for sex,aggression,achievement,and other behaviors is rooted in our evolutionary past.Thus,if a species is highly competitive ,it is because such competitiveness improved the chance for survival and was passed down through the genes from generation to generation.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION :

He is motivated to play DOTA because he enjoy playing it.

I N T R I N S I C  M O T I V A T I O N

• occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings the pleasure , they enjoy the activity themselves ,they think it is important , or they feel that what they are learning is significant.

  

  We are motivated to work inorder to receive salary to fulfill our basic needs

E X T R I N S I C  M O T I V A T I O N

•   refers to performing an action or behavior in order to achieve an external reward or outcome.When you are extrinsically motivated to do something, you aren't concerned with whether or not the action is enjoyable.You are most concerned with the outcomes associated with the action.

MOTIVATIONAL CYCLE

When a goal is achieved, an individual rarely stops there. Often , the accomplished goal leads to other drives. A person never get contented. One goal leads to other motives or drives.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

• Incentive Theory of Motivation

• The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards.

>For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation.

• Drive Theory of Motivation
• According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs.
  >For example, you might be motivated to eat in order to reduce the internal state of hunger.This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. 
• The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological needs.

• Arousal Theory of Motivation

• The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal.

>When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a jog. When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax such as meditating or reading a book. According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or the situation.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

• Humanistic Theory of Motivation

>Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons to perform various actions.This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which presents different motivations at different levels. First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one’s individual potential.

SELF ACTUALIZATION

SELF-ESTEEM NEEDS

LOVE AND BELONGINGNESS

SAFETY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Why is MOTIVATION IMPORTANT?

• Motivation helps you get started.
• Motivation helps you keep moving.
• Motivation makes you do more than necessary.
• Motivation makes the journey fun!

Final Thoughts

        Motivation is very important in our lives especially as a student.It plays a very important role , so in order to attain our goals we need this to focus in our certain goals so that we can accurately do our work and at the same time we are enjoying what we are doing.
So there is no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action. In reality, there are likely many different forces that interact to motivate behavior.



REFERENCES:
https://generalpsychology,com
original images :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MASLOW
http://www.googleimage.com
https://alleydog.com

DRUG EDUCATION

16 Sep 2015

Contributed by:  Jean Heramil

”Substance Abuse & Addiction Signs, Effects & Symptoms”

     



Some individuals can use alcohol and drugs without developing an addiction or negative effects. For many others, however, alcohol and substance abuse can lead to a multitude of problems. These include interpersonal challenges, difficulties fulfilling responsibilities at home, work or school, and may lead to harmful or dangerous activities. Chronic substance abuse may result in feelings of shame, guilt, helplessness and pessimism.
Substance abuse occurs when an individual continues using the substance despite the negative cognitive, behavioral, physical, social and frequently mood-related symptoms.  These may include difficulty with decision-making, impulsive control, a worsening physical condition, social withdrawal, or irritability and anger outbursts.
Long-term use of even legally prescribed medication can result in withdrawal symptoms, negative physical and psychological symptoms when stopped or reduced.  Withdrawal can range from mild anxiety and depression to seizures, delusions, hallucinations, coma, seizures and death.Individuals who have abused substances for a lengthy period of time may come to believe they can’t function normally without the drug. Others fear they will no longer be able to function at school or work, while others are concerned they will lose their self-confidence and ability to interact socially.
Statistics
Prevalence estimates indicates approximately 8.7% of the U.S. population over the age of 12 used an illegal substance in the previous month. Past month prevalence rates of nonmedical prescription drug use for this population were estimated at 2.4%.
More than half of those who use drugs begun doing so as teenagers. Of approximately 8,500 new users per day, approximately 53% were under the age of 18. The highest rate of drug abuse is found in those ages 18-20 with 23.8% having used illicit drugs in the past month.
Signs
While symptoms can differ based on the substance used, common symptoms include:
Psychological/Mood:

• Altered mood state
• Difficulty making decisions
• Poor judgment
• Changes in personality
• Sudden changes in mood, irritability
• Angry outbursts
• Feeling fearful, anxious or paranoid without reason
• Lack of motivation to pursue any goal-related activity

Behavioral:

• Neglecting responsibilities at home, work, or school
• Deterioration of physical appearance
• Hiding drugs in different places
• Hiding drug use from others
• Social withdrawal to avoid negative judgments or pressure to stop using the drug
• Lack of participation in previously frequented activities

Physical:

• Tolerance – the need to take more of the substance to produce desired effects
• Taking the drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms
• Negative effect on immune system resulting in frequent illnesses
• Change in appetite
• Change in sleep patterns

Effects of Drug Abuse

Some common effects of drug abuse include:

• Accidents and injuries
• Criminal activity
• Domestic violence, child abuse and neglect
• Physical and psychological illness
• Engaging in thief, violence and vandalism
• Drug-related death
• Infectious diseases
• Homelessness
• Inability to obtain employment
• Lack of control, impulsivity
• Disruptive and antisocial behavior

Withdrawal Symptoms

While withdrawal symptoms depend largely on the substance, common withdrawal symptoms include:

• Anxiety, nervousness
• Restlessness
• Social withdrawal or isolation
• Palpitations
•  Vomiting, or diarrhea
• Irregular heart beat or heart attacks
• Hallucinations
• Thoughts of death or suicide
• Feelings of helplessness/ hopelessness
• Irritability
• Insomnia, hypersomnia
• Headaches
• Inability to concentrate
• Depression

 
A drug is any habit-forming substance that directly affects the central nervous system; it affects moods, perceptions, bodily functions or consciousness.Therefore we must avoid using drugs so that we are not like those people above, looking  like paranoid,terrible and depress.

• Reference:
  
  • Acadiana Addiction Center
  • Substance Abuse & Addiction Treatment

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

14 Sep 2015 

Contributed by: Angelika Martorillas

“Hope is both the earliest and the most indispensable virtue inherent in the state of being alive. If  life is to be sustained hope must remain, even where confidence is wounded, trust impaired.”
- Erik Erikson

”Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory”

Erik Erikson’s life and theories:

• Erik Erikson was born June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany.
• He died May 12, 1994.

Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development generated interest and research on human development through the lifespan, he became one of the most famous and influential thinkers of the twentieth century. He is best known for his well-known psychosocial theory of development and for coining the term identity crisis. In addition to holding teaching positions at Harvard, the University of California-Berkeley, and Yale, he also wrote a number of popular books including The Life Cycle Completed and Identity: Youth and Crisis. In psychosocial development here’s a broad introduction to the main features of Erikson’s model. Erikson’s psychosocial theory essentially states that each person experiences eight ‘psychosocial crisis’ (internal conflicts linked to life’s key stages) which help to define his or her growth and personality.Each stage is centered on a conflict that must be resolved. Learn more about the important events in each stage and the potential outcomes of succeeding or failing to resolve these conflicts.

Stage 1: Infancy (birth to 18 months) Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust   Important Events: Feeding Outcome: Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Stage 2: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Important Events: Toilet Training Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Stage 3: Preschool (3 to 5 years) Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt Important Events: Exploration Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

Stage 4: School Age (6 to 11 years) Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority Important Events: School Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion Important Events: Social Relationships Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Stage 6: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation Important Events: Relationships Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation Important Events: Parenting Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

Stage 8: Maturity(65 to death) Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair Important Events: Reflection on life Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

This theory looks at the impact of parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood.Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development can be applied to many aspect of life, such as eating habits. His different stages correspond with the different stages in the development of eating habits. During the first stage, which is Trust vs. Distrust, children must be fed by there parents. It is important that parents feed their children only when they are hungry, and to do so in a cool, comfortable environment. By doing this, the child develops a sense of trust toward their adult. In the Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt stage, children acquire a greater sense of self control. Children should be allowed to attempt to feed themselves, regardless of whether they make a mess.

They may refuse a food, or attempt to combine them, and should not be discouraged. As they grow, the toddlers enter the Initiative Vs. Guilt Stage. As its name state, kids began to take more initiative. They will begin to try new foods, serving themselves, and deciding whether they are full. Finally, children enter the last stage that is related to eating habits, which is the Industry Vs. Inferiority Stage. Adolescents feel capable of fulfilling their own needs. They can discern whether they are hungry, and satisfy themselves. Kids can begin assisting in the formation of menus and can even help prepare foods. The development of eating habits in young men and women can be traced using  Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development.

References:
“Psychology – Article.” Psychology – Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts. Web. 09 Nov. 2010.

Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Each person has to pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over his entire life cycle.Crises are seen as decisive turning points of increased vulnerability or strength to function effectively. However, Erikson did not imply that any manifestation of potentially dangerous traits is undesirable but that when the negative far outweighs the positive, then difficulties in development arise.